Advancing Ambient-Air Perovskite Solar Cells: Comparative Insights into Spin-Coating and Inkjet Printing for Performance, Stability, and Large-Area Scalability

Abstract

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as a highly promising photovoltaic technology due to their high power conversion efficiencies, solution processability, and scalability potential. Among solution-based deposition methods, spin coating has traditionally dominated laboratory-scale fabrication, offering rapid crystallization and uniform films under controlled conditions; however, it suffers from high material waste and limited reproducibility for large-area devices. Inkjet printing, by contrast, provides a digital, additive, and scalable approach, enabling precise control over film thickness, patterning, and material usage, even under ambient air. This review provides a comparative analysis of spin-coated and inkjet-printed PSCs fabricated in air, focusing on film formation mechanisms, morphological and structural properties, optoelectronic performance, operational stability, and scalability. Recent studies (2018–2025) show that ambient-air-processed PSCs can achieve power conversion efficiencies of up to 17.7% (spin coating) and 12.4% (inkjet printing), with long-term stability exceeding 85%. Challenges such as droplet coalescence, coffee-ring effects, and humidity-induced degradation are addressed via ink formulation, substrate engineering, and hybrid fabrication strategies. These insights offer guidance for bridging the gap between laboratory research and industrial-scale production of air-processed PSCs.